Did the Proverbial Two Captains on the Same Ship Make the Frisians Free?

The much-celebrated Frisian Freedom refers to the period roughly between 1250 and 1500, when the Frisian terrae (‘lands’)—bearing beautiful, exotic names like Drechterland, Vier Noorder Koggen, Westergo, Oostergo, Humsterland, Hunsingo, Fivelingo, Rheiderland, Emsingo, Federgo, Norderland, Harlingerland, Wangerland, Östringen, Rüstringen, Wursten, and Butjadingen—were small, self-governed communities. A string of so-called marsh republics stretched along the Wadden Sea coast of what is now Germany and the Netherlands. But how did this remarkable exception arise in a Europe where territories were generally expanding under increasingly powerful centralized states?

In our blog posts The Treaty of the Upstalsboom. Why solidarity is not the core of a collective and Magnus’ Choice. The Origins of the Frisian Freedom, we have already explored the Frisian Freedom in detail, including the importance of avoiding an overly romanticized view of both the freedom itself and the presumed egalitarian society. In reality, these much-celebrated aspects of Frisian history need to be understood in proper context. Nevertheless, the political situation in the Frisian lands was strikingly different from almost anywhere else in Europe. Feudalism there collapsed and gave way to a form of self-governance reminiscent of early-medieval Germanic traditions. Apart from possibly explaining why some have considered the Frisians ‘backward,’ what underlying factors caused this unique socio-political development?

The condominium — a vacuum of power

By the mid-twelfth century, both the County of Holland and the Bishopric of Utrecht laid claim to hegemony over Frisia between the Vlie and the River Lauwers—roughly corresponding to the modern province of Friesland. Even Holy Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa (1122–1190) became involved to settle the dispute. In 1165, he ruled that the count and the bishop held equal rights and sovereignty over the region in what was known as a condominium—not to be confused with an apartment block or complex. Together, they were to jointly appoint a viscount to govern this part of Frisia on their behalf, with tax revenues to be divided between the two often quarrelsome authorities.

HRE Frederick Barbarossa

The condominium functioned effectively only as long as the bishop belonged to the House of West Frisia/Holland, the Gerulfing dynasty. During such periods, the interests of the county and the bishopric largely aligned—though only limitedly the case. As a result of this unusual arrangement, neither the viscount, the count, nor the bishop could assert real authority over the region. This power vacuum or failed authority allowed the Frisians to increasingly assert their freedom rights—privileges said to have been granted by Charlemagne himself (Janse 2013). Freedom by deadlock, as it were.

By the 1270s, the condominium had effectively become a dead letter. From that point onward, the people of Friesland began electing their own judges, crafting their own laws, and organizing their own militias, etc. The only authority they formally acknowledged was that of the Holy Roman Emperor himself—rejecting all his intermediaries and middlemen. They considered themselves reichsunmittelbar, directly subject to the emperor alone. Never again would a count of Holland set foot on Frisian territory east of the seaway 't Vlie; and the one time he did, he did not live to tell the tale. This was famously demonstrated at the Battle of Warns in 1345.

Would Thou [Jezus] venture thither with Thy vague and undefined promise of freedom, which men, dull and unruly as they are by nature, are unable so much as to understand, which they avoid and fear?—for never was there anything more unbearable to the human race than personal freedom! 

A quote from the chapter 'The Grand Inquisitor' in the book The Brothers Karamazov of Dostoevsky (1879/80). In this powerful scene, the Grand Inquisitor confronts Jesus, whom he has taken prisoner after Jesus reappeared on Earth again in the sixteenth century. The Inquisitor accuses Jesus of no longer having the right to mingle with humanity because, since God granted people freedom, the world has descended into chaos. Since then, the Catholic Church has established order by sacrificing that freedom, offering the people security and bread instead. According to the Grand Inquisitor, Jesus should therefore not return to preach freedom again.

The flip side of this newfound freedom was that, by the early 1300s, Friesland was rife with disruptive feuds and unrest. Local chieftains were ‘free’ to amass as much power as they could, erecting small stone donjons across the land to defend their holdings. With no higher authority to restrain the violence, the region descended into a prolonged civil war that would last an astonishing two centuries. Friesland was not unique in this turmoil; across Frisia—stretching along much of the Wadden Sea coast between the seaway 't Vlie and the River Weser—including the Saxon region of Dithmarschen, rival warlords fiercely competed for dominance. 'The blessing of freedom,' Dostoevsky's Grand Inquisitor would say.

Zwischen Moor und Meer

The heading above translates to 'between moor and sea,' as the Frisians say in the region of Ostfriesland. The condominium was not the defining factor that enabled the Frisians of the territories of Westergo and Oostergo to gain their freedom from counts and bishops and become self-governing republics. Even more decisive was the landscape itself. From the town of Harlingen to Cuxhaven, as well as along the lower reaches of the River Elbe and throughout the region of Dithmarschen, feudal state structures had all but disappeared. As mentioned earlier, a string of small republics thrived on the tidal marshlands of the Wadden Sea coast—ein freies Marschenvolk. And not all of these lands shared a history of condominium rule.

tidal marshland cultivated

No, the true advantage lay in the impenetrability of the landscape. On one side, the Frisian lands bordered a shallow, tidal sea—the Wadden Sea—that was notoriously difficult to navigate, making it nearly impossible for a full-fledged army to approach by water. On the other side stretched vast peatlands—wet, swampy terrain that was equally challenging to cross with heavy troops. The marshlands themselves were crisscrossed by lakes and waterways, and the soft clay soil made it difficult for armies with horses, provisions, and heavy armour to traverse. For much of the year, these lands were inundated with water. Consequently, the optimal time for military campaigns was winter, when frozen lakes and hardened soil provided firmer footing for troops.

On top of this, the landscape made it possible for the Frisians to adopt guerrilla warfare too. They laid ambushes using small, highly manoeuvrable militia forces adept at navigating the watery landscape. Armed with their kletsie—a combined leaping pole and spear—they could effortlessly vault over the countless ditches and creeks. This versatile weapon and tool was widely used along the entire Wadden Sea coast, including the province of Holland.

At the same time, the salt marshes were fertile and well suited for raising cattle and sheep. The peatlands provided valuable fuel and were also mined for salt. Moreover, because the Frisian terrae bordered the sea, they were far from isolated. On the contrary, the sea offered vital connections to the wider world for trade and beyond. Indeed, zwischen Moor und Meer—between moor and sea—the sea was just as much their lifeline as the land.

The advantages of living on the edge.

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Note 1 — In this blog post, we explored the historical reasons why, against all odds and contrary to the broader trend of state formation in Europe, regions like Frisia and Dithmarschen evolved into small farmer republics in the course of the Middle Ages. Key factors included the unique condominium arrangement and, even more decisively, the distinctive natural environment. The Frisians themselves, however, have preserved many sagas explaining how they came to possess their freedom. For these, see our blog post Magnus’ Choice. The Origins of the Frisian Freedom.

Note 2 — In addition to the condominium over Frisia between the rivers Vlie and Lauwers, from 1167 the Count of Holland also held a condominium over the province of Zeeland west of the River Scheldt. In this case, the count shared power with the Count of Flanders. This arrangement again created a power vacuum, which the local population of Zeeland west of the Scheldt was able to exploit. The territory became known as the Adelsrepubliek 'noble republic' or the Ambachtsherenrepubliek 'republic of manorial lords' (De Graaf 2004).

Further reading

Dostoevsky, F., The Brothers Karamazov (1879/80)

Graaf, de R., Oorlog om Holland. 1000-1375 (2004)

Janse, A., Grenzen aan de macht. De Friese oorlog van de graven van Holland omstreeks 1400 (2013)

Porte, R., Een speer en een polsstok in één: de kletsie was hét wapen voor de middeleeuwse Fries (2022)