Pagare il fio

Pagare il fio is Italian for 'paying the penalty'. More literally, it means 'paying the fee'. It is an expression the Italian language inherited from the Barbarians from the North when they toppled the Western Roman Empire. The English word fee originates from Old English feoh which means 'cattle'. The Mid Frisian word for cattle still is fee. In Dutch and German respectively it is vee and Vieh. Moreover, the Anglo-Frisian rune ᚠ is called feh meaning 'wealth'. So, the literal translation of pagare il fio is 'paying the price'. When in AD 28 the Romans raised taxes in what is now the west of the Netherlands and demanded more cattle be paid, it led to an uprising of the Frisians. The fighting was won by the Frisians, and a staggering 1,300 legionnaires died in battle. Death and taxes; the two certainties in life.

The dainty Romans arrived two thousand years ago at the rough and mighty deltas of the rivers Rhine, Meuse, and Scheldt, including massive impenetrable peatlands bordering the coastal zone from western Flanders in Belgium to southern Jutland in Denmark. Combined, the three rivers are responsible for discharging, on average, circa 2.5 million liters of water per second into the North Sea. A wet and swampy environment—very difficult to conquer.

The Frisians, called Frisii or Fresones by the Romans, lived along the coast from the River IJ near modern Amsterdam to more or less the River Ems, now the border between Germany and the Netherlands, although parts of this border in the Dollart Bight are still being disputed by the governments of Germany and the Netherlands. Disputable too, part of the modern province of Drenthe was territory of the Frisians, and that of the Chauci, as well. In our blog post The Killing Fields—of the Celts more about this area's history.

The first record of the Frisians dates from BC 12 and recounts how the Frisian tribes became allies during a battle against the Chauci tribe. The Chauci, as stated, were a people in the north of what is now the Wadden Sea coast of northwest Germany, roughly between the River Ems and the River Elbe. Thus, eastern neighbours of the Frisians, their material culture was akin to theirs. Both tribes lived on artificial dwelling mounds, i.e. terps, on the barren tidal marshlands. Read our blog post Shipwrecked people of the salt marshes for a better understanding of this common marshland culture. Like the Frisians, the Chauci were not pacified either. The Frisians, and especially the Chauci, were notorious pirates. In our blog post Our civilization—it all began with piracy we shed some light on their excessive and violent entrepreneurship, and the impact this had on Western history.

First Romans arrive at the marshes of Rüstringen by Hermann Allmers (1821-1902)

It was the Romans Plinius (also Pliny) the Elder and Tacitus who wrote about the Frisians and these northern lands in the first century AD. Historian Tacitus described Germania in general as follows: “The terrain is fierce, the climate is rough, life and landscape are bleak. You only come here if it is your homeland.” This must have been especially true for the wet, swampy coastal zone along the Wadden Sea. His words and appreciation also had a long-lasting negative effect on tourism to the north of Germany and the Netherlands.

It is fair to assume the Romans gave the Frisians their tribe's name Frisii in the first century. This name derives from the Vulgar Latin verb fresare, meaning 'to cut/to dig', and refers to how Frisians cut a myriad of ditches into the flat landscape, a way to drain and cultivate the regularly flooded wetlands, either by sea or river. See for a more elaborate explanation our blog post A severe case of inattentional blindness: the Frisian tribe’s name.

Close to the North Sea coast, the Roman Army tried to penetrate into the north and conquer the watery territories of the Frisians and the Chauci, among others. In the area of the present-day town of Velsen-Zuid, just northwest of the modern city of Amsterdam, the Romans established two pre-limes fortresses (limes means 'border path'), probably around the year AD 15. The Romans called the place Flevum. There was a naval base and a fortress of the type castra, roughly eleven hectares large. This implies a legion of about 5,000 to 6,000 men was deployed here between AD 15-47, which makes Velsen-Zuid also the most northern castra-type fortress of the Roman Empire. Who would have thought?

Back then, the River IJ connected Velsen-Zuid both with the North Sea near the current village of Egmond aan Zee and with lacus 'lake' Flevo. Via this big lake, the settlement of Velsen-Zuid was connected with the hinterland. It explains the name Flevum given to the fortresses, after Lake Flevo. So, it was a strategic spot to control and to tax the movement of goods and people. Additionally, it served as a strategic location for military campaigns to the north, in the Wadden Sea area. Archaeological research has also identified a place of cult of the Frisians at the modern village of Velserbroek, just south of Velsen-Zuid.

Roman geographer Pomponius Mela described lacus Flevo and gave it its name in the first half of the first century AD. It was a lake with an island in it. Flevo is related to the modern Mid Frisian verb floeie, meaning 'to flow'. The later River Vlie is named after it, as is the Wadden Sea island of Vlieland. The seaway between the islands of Vlieland and Terschelling is still called the Vlie. The name Flanders might have the same etymological origin, namely land that was flooded. See our blog post A Frontier known as Watery Mess: the Coast of Flanders. So, all of Frisia in the flow.

fortresses Flevum at present-day Velsen

Besides Flevum, small Roman outposts might (briefly) have been established in the first century near the current villages of Winsum-Bruggeburen in the province of Friesland and at Bentumersiel at the River Ems in the region of Ostfriesland, the latter in the land of the Chauci tribe. These outposts are indicated by the many Roman finds like terra sigillata, amphoras, coins, and militaria. Possibly, both outposts had the function of collecting taxes and facilitating trade. However, there is still discussion among scholars on how to interpret the archaeological finds at Winsum-Bruggeburen and Bentumersiel. Perhaps it was not a Roman presence at all, but merely an indication of intensive contacts with the Romans. Or do these archaeological finds indicate farmsteads or houses of Frisian and Chauci tribesmen who had served in the army before? Just like the Deer Hunter of Fallward?

AD 16 was the year General Germanicus Julius Caesar made his final effort to conquer the tribes north of the Lower River Rhine. Via the Wadden Sea, his immense fleet of four legions reached the muddy mouth of the River Ems, which was the border of the Frisians and the Chauci. Here, Gallic and Germanic auxiliary troops of the Roman Army, who had marched over land from the south, joined the main army. The Frisians were, at that time, friendly with the Romans. From the River Ems, Germanicus continued to the River Weser to confront the Germanic forces led by Arminius, commander of the Cherusci tribe.

Although the battles between Germanicus and Arminius took many lives, Germanicus was victorious in AD 16. A big setback, however, during Germanicus’ military campaign was that on his way back from the River Ems, the fleet ran into a heavy storm on the Wadden Sea. Ships were wrecked, many drowned, and the army was scattered over a large area. Army officer praefectus Albinovanus Pedo wrote about this maritime disaster, which, by the way, is the oldest account describing the Wadden Sea area. Read our blog post Racing on the Wadden Sea with a Silt Sled to find Pedo's compelling account. In spite of the fact that Germanicus' campaign was successful overall, he was ordered by Rome, for unclear reasons, to settle behind the Lower River Rhine nevertheless.

One year after John the Baptist was beheaded in Jerusalem by tetrarch ‘ruler’ Herod Antipas, it was the Frisians who revolted against the Romans this time. The immediate cause was the rise in taxes, which led to the great uprising in the year AD 28. At least, this is what historian Tacitus cited as the reason. Allegedly, a Roman tax collector by the name of Olennius was not satisfied with the small cattle pelts and demanded larger ones from the Frisians. When the Frisians explained to Olennius that the size of their cattle was what it was, Olennius wanted the Frisians to give their women and children as slaves. There was no reasoning with this antithesis of Zacchaeus. Hence, the Frisians were left with no choice but to revolt. That was what they did. See also notes further below.

The Frisians, men and probably women, too, since war was a family affair, attacked the fortresses at Flevum in a battle apud lucum quem Baduhennae vocant 'at the grove which is named after [goddess] Baduhenna'. In other words, the Battle of Baduhenna Forest. No, not the battle at the Teutoburg Forest. It was Ba-du-hen-na.

Battle at Baduhenna Forest with the farmstead of Cruptorix by Goetze, Glimmerveen & Deviant Art

The Romans suffered significant losses against the Frisians in the Baduhenna Forest. Tacitus reports 900 Roman casualties in the forests, and yet another 400 Roman soldiers who killed each other just after their retreat at the villa or farmstead of a certain person named Cruptorix. The reason for the butchery at Cruptorix' villa was fear of mutiny and betrayal, after the massacre in the forests, and the fear they would be slaughtered by the strong Frisians soon. We are familiar with the agitated nature of southern Europeans, but we did not know that it can be this strong. Anyway, after this battle, the quote below of the Roman historians:

„CLARVM INDE INTER GERMANOS FRISIVM NOMEN“

ever since the name of the Frisians has a bright sound

The reports of Tacitus are supported by archaeological finds. Archaeological research has found no less than 520 lead sling bullets at the former fortresses that were under siege by the Frisian men and women.

As a consequence of this fierce resistance, the Romans had to give up their pre-limes fortresses at the River IJ at modern Velsen-Zuid as well. Maybe this applies to the recently discovered fortifications at the town of Krommenie too, located circa twenty kilometers northwest of Amsterdam. The Romans were pushed back south by the Frisians, behind the River Rhine. And, as it was perceived in Rome in those days, the imperial army had lost much of its honour in the north against the Germanic tribes above the River Rhine.

Despite all military efforts, the River Rhine turned out to be the most northern border of the empire on the continent. Do not forget, no less than three Roman legions were slaughtered by Germanic tribes in the relatively nearby Teutoburg Forest at the present-day town of Kalkriese in Germany not long before, in the year AD 9. A battle also referred to as the Variana clades 'Varian disaster' (Mees 2023). An even more humiliating defeat. With the already mentioned disastrous battle against the Frisians in AD 28, the Romans adjusted their ambitions in expanding their territory northward. For the time being, that was, because one famous Roman army commander would give it yet another try, as we shall see further below.

More resistance

From around the year 40, the Romans constructed the limes along the southern banks of the River Rhine, being the northernmost border of their empire on the Continent. The limes was a series of fortresses, watch posts and, near the coast, a naval fleet, all connected with roads. The westernmost castellum was Lugdunum, built around the year 40, and locally known as Brittenburg. It was built at the mouth of the River Rhine near the present town Katwijk, circa 900 meters from the coast. Since Roman times, the North Sea coastline has moved about a kilometer inland. Probably, two equitata 'cavalry units' of about 480 men each from the Cananefates tribe were stationed here. After the uprising of the Cananefates, Batavians, Frisians, and Chauci in the years 69 and 70 (see further below), these cavalry units were replaced by other auxiliary forces from outside the region. Fortress Lugdunum remained exceptionally long in use, even after the Romans had basically left the limes and their military presence along the Lower River Rhine halfway through the third century. In the period 364-375, namely, castellum Lugdunum was reduced in size and received the function of a secured granary for the supply of Britannia (Wolfrat 2022).

Also on the south bank of the River Rhine, not far from Lugdunum, the Romans constructed a huge military complex consisting of a harbour, very big horrea 'granaries', a castrum 'army camp', and a castellum 'fortress'. The complex, built in the year 39, was named Praetorium Agrippinae and was located at the modern town of Valkenburg, circa 15 kilometres north of the modern city of The Hague. It supported about 6,000 military personnel. The purpose of this huge military site was to serve as one of the bases for the invasion of Britannia. It was Emperor Caligula who personally inspected the base in the year 40. In the following years, the invasion of Britannia unfolded. Emperor Caligula was murdered a year after he visited the military site at Valkenburg. See featured image of this blog post, the death of Caligula with his mother Agrippinae behind the drapes, painted by the Frisian artist Sir Lourens Alma-Tadema (see notes further below). Caligula pagato il fio, indeed.

In the year 46, under the command of 'pirate' Gannascus and member of the Cananefates tribe, the Chauci together with the Frisians started raiding the North Sea coasts south of the River Rhine all the way to Gaul. A year later, General Corbulo was appointed in the north to restore order. He started punitive expeditions against the Chauci and the Frisians, and managed to subdue the Frisians. The limes, part of the Limes Germanicus, were erected along the south banks of the Lower River Rhine from AD 47 onward. Despite commander-in-chief Corbulo was quite successful in giving the Frisians and the Chauci a hard time, Rome ordered Corbulo to stop his campaigns and, once again, to settle with the River Rhine as the northern-most border of the empire. Army camp Flevum was given up. Corbulo left the area in the year 50. Probably feeling he could have achieved so much more if only the ever out-of-touch bureaucrats in the capital had listened to him.

Corbulo is also remembered for the canal he had dug between the mouth of the River Meuse (i.e. Haringvliet), named Helinium by the Romans, and the mouth of the River Rhine. The town Forum Hadriani was later built next to it. The canal ran parallel to the coast. Seaway Vliet is the remnant of this former canal of Corbulo. It was not the only water infrastructure made by the Romans. Drusus had canals dug, likewise. These so-called Drusus canals were dug between 12 and 9 BC. Most probably, the River Stichtse Vecht was where a series of canals made passage possible between fortress Fectio, near the modern town of Vechten, and Lake Flevum, modern Lake IJsselmeer. From Lake IJsselmeer, the Romans could continue to sail north (Verhagen 2022). That Drusus was quite busy with improving waterways proves the name of the town of Drusenheim in France, where once General Drusus had fortresses erected on the banks of the River Rhine. Here, a diligent blue-painted ferry with the name Druss continuously crosses the river between France and Germany (Hendriksma 2017).

Another massive uprising which must be mentioned is the one in the years 69 and 70, known as the Revolt of the Batavi. The Batavians, a people who had split from the Celtic Chatti, were under the command of Gaius Julius Civilus. The Cananefates—under the command of King Brinno—the Chauci, and the Frisians also participated in the revolt. These latter tribes were considered the bravest forces by Civilus. The naval power of these allied forces was mainly supplied by the Cananefates and the Frisians, and their fleet laid waste to the mighty castellum Praetorium Agrippinae. Actually, with the destruction of Praetorium Agrippinae by the Cananefates and Frisians, the whole Batavian Revolt started in the first place. Read more in our blog post Our civilization—it all began with piracy. What the fleet of the Cananefates and Frisians did more.

Do you want me to tell you what wrecks all poetry? It is the dissonance of German and barbarian thrumming.

Gallo-Roman writer and politician Sidonius Apollinaris (443-489), after Arnold (2024)

As a side remark, the name Cananefates probably means 'master of garlic'. The fates part derives from the Germanic word faþi, meaning 'lords' or 'masters'. The part kannina is of Celtic origin and means 'garlic'. Garlic was considered a medicinal plant and only to be used by the elite. Similarly, the name of the Eburones, a tribe living in the northeast of Gaul, where the countries Belgium, Germany, and the Netherlands meet, referred to a plant, too. Their tribe name might mean 'yew people' (Clerinx 2023).

Northern Roman cities

Forum Hadriani also known as Municipium Aelium Cananefatium MAC by Glimmerveen

In AD 121, in the land of the civitas ‘tribe’ Cananefates who dwelled in the area between the mouths of the rivers Flevum (Rhine) and Helinium (Haringvliet), the Romans founded the northernmost capital of the Roman Empire on the continent, namely Forum Hadriani, also known as Municipium Aelium Cananefatium, commonly abbreviated—something the Romans loved to do—to MAC. MAC was located near the present-day city of The Hague and had an estimated 5,000 inhabitants. The nearest other town to MAC was Noviomagus, the modern town of Nijmegen in the east of the Netherlands, which also had an estimated 5,000 inhabitants.

Concerning the gates of Noviomagus, legend goes that the west gate carried in stone the text hic limes imperii 'this is the end of the empire,' and the west gate the text hic finis regni Stauriae 'this is the end of the kingdom of Stavoren' (Le Petit 1614). Other writers say the text of the gate of Noviomagus read huc usque ius Stauriae 'up to here the law of Stavoren' (Hamckema 1623, Gorissen 1955) or huc usque regnum Stauriae 'up to here the kingdom of Stavoren' (Kok 1792, Van der Aa 1848). Supposedly, the early medieval inscription was written on a stone part of the former old Hezelpoort, a gate that has been demolished in 1877. Stauriae is the Latin name of the town of Stavoren, also called Starum in the Mid Frisian language, located in the southwest of the province of Friesland. According to many sagas, Stavoren was the old seat of the kings of Frisia. In our blog post Stavoren. A balancer on a slack rope of religion, trade, land, water, Holland, and Frisia we have looked into this stone inscription more closely.

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Nota I — If you think the presence of the Roman Empire was merely a burden for the Frisians, this wasn't the case. It also meant more trade possibilities, like selling woollen cloth, salt, and probably dairy products. But also Frisian warriors enrolled in the army as soldier. Read our blog post Frisian Mercenaries in the Roman Army.

Concerning the episode about the taxes and the size of cow hides, there might have been more to it for the Romans. When you combine this with archaeological results concerning the development of livestock, i.e., the increase of cattle populations, and changes in the appearances of cattle, i.e., polledness, the Romans could have been stimulating the breeding of cattle. In our blog post Golden Calves, or Bursting Udders on Bony Legs? we explain this theory of ours in more detail.

Nota II — Did you know that between 1504 and 1795, ancient Roman Law in its purest form was the applicable law in the province of Friesland? Check our blog post Medieval Migration Law. A matter of liability for more about this anomaly in European law practice.

Nota III — Featured image is a painting of the Frisian artist Sir Lourens Alma-Tadema (1836-1912) from the village of Dronrijp. It depicts the death of Emperor Caligula in AD 41. On the wall a painting depicting the famous naval Battle at Actium in BC 31. Alma-Tadema was one of the most famous painters of his time, and lived for a big part of his life in England. His paintings shaped for many generations how people envisioned Antique Rome, and maybe it does to this very day. Alma-Tadema was promoted to British nobility and is buried in the Saint Paul's Cathedral, which all together is a huge honour given to someone in Britain. In the Netherlands he was not admitted to a Dutch art school.

Nota IV — Credit featured image Death of Caligula by the Frisian artist Lourens Alma-Tadema (1836-1912).

Credit images of the Romans encountering Frisians: Stichting Oer-IJ and Rob van Eerden.

Further reading

Aa, van der A.J. (ed.), Aardrijkskundig woordenboek der Nederlanden (1848)

Arnold, E.F., Medieval Riverscapes. Environment and Memory in Northwest Europe, c. 300-1100 (2024)

Berkel, van G. & Samplonius, K., Nederlandse plaatsnamen verklaard. Reeks Nederlandse plaatsnamen deel 12 (2018)

Bosman, V.A.J., Rome aan de Noordzee. Burgers en barbaren te Velsen (2016)

Broeke, van den P.W., Pierenpaté? Fries aardewerk ten zuiden van de Nederrijn (2018)

Buijtendorp, T., De gouden eeuw van de Romeinen in de Lage Landen (2021)

Bunt, van de A., Wee de overwonnenen. Germanen, Kelten en Romeinen in de Lage Landen (2020)

Clerinx, H., De god met de maretak. Kelten en de Lage Landen (2023)

Dhaeze, W., The Roman North Sea and Channel Coastal Defence. Germanic Seaborne Raids and the Roman Response (2019)

Diederik, F., Germania en de keizerlijke politiek (2011)

Galestin, M.C., Frisii and Frisiavones (2016)

Gelder, van J., Nieuwenhuis, M. & Peters, T. (transl.), Plinius. De wereld. Naturalis historia (2018)

Ginkel, van E. & Vos, W., Grens van het Romeinse Rijk. De limes in Zuid-Holland (2018)

Gorissen, F., Huc usque ius stavriae : over de betekenis van de gedenksteen afkomstig van de Hezelpoort (1955)

Hamckema, M., Frisia Sev De viris Rebvsqve Frisiæ Illvstribvs Libri Dvo. Opus ab authore recognitum, auctum, & Imaginibus Regum, Potestatum, ac Principum exornatum. Adiecti Svnt Pontifices Frisiorvm. Ethnici, seu Præfecti Druydum: Episcopi Vltraiectini: Comites Hollandiæ, & Zelandiæ: Diplomataque, & Monumenta aliquot Pontificum, Cæsarum, ac aliorum heroum; Virtutem Frisiorum declarantia (1623)

Granzow Busch, N.P., Romeinen zetten artillerie in: Germanen werden doorboord (2023)

Haywood, J., Dark Age Naval Power. A Reassessment of Frankish and Anglo-Saxon Seafaring Activity (1999)

Heeren, S., Grensoverschrijdingen. Romeins-Germaanse interactie (2022)

Heeringen, van R.M. & Velde, van der H.M. (eds.), Struinen door de duinen. Synthetiserend onderzoek naar de bewoningsgeschiedenis van het Hollands duingebied op basis van gegevens verzameld in het Malta-tijdperk (2017)

Hendriksma, M., De Rijn. Biografie van een rivier (2017)

Huisman, K., De Friese geschiedenis in meer dan 100 verhalen (2003)

Hunink, V (transl), Tacitus. In moerassen en donkere wouden. De Romeinen in Germanië (2015)

Kok, J., Vaderlandsch woordenboek. Zevenentwintisgte deel (1792)

Lendering, J., Romeinen in Velsen (2016)

Londen, van H., Ridder, T., Bosman, A. & Bazelmans, J., Het West-Nederlandse kustgebied in de Romeinse tijd (2008)

Looijenga, A., Popkema, A. & Slofstra, B. (transl.), Een meelijwekkend volk. Vreemden over Friezen van de oudheid tot de kerstening (2017)

Lugt, F., Rijnland in de donkere eeuwen. Van de komst van de Kelten tot het ontstaan van het graafschap (2021)

Mees, B., The English language before England. An epigraphic account (2023)

Meijlink, B. & Silkens, B. & Jaspers, N.L., Zeeën van Tijd. Grasduinen door de archeologie van 2500 jaar Domburg en het Oostkapelse strand (2017)

Naber, M.J. & Smit, E., Romeinse veldtochten. 7 wandelingen langs de noordgrens van het Romeinse Rijk (2016)

Nieuwhof, A. & Nicolay, J., Identiteit en samenleving: terpen en wierden in de wijde wereld (2018)

Nijdam, H., Law and Political Organization of the Early Medieval Frisians (c. AD 600-800) (2021)

Mijle Meijer, van der R.A., Scheveningseweg gemeente Den Haag. Archeologische begeleiding rioolvervanging (2011)

Petit, le J.F., Nederlandsche Repvblycke; Eijgentlijcte Befchrijvinge Der Vrije Nederlandfche Provintien (1615)

Stolte, B.H. (ed.), Germania Inferior. Untersuchungen zur Territorial- und Verwatungsgeschichte Niedergermaniens in der Prinzipatszeit (1972)

Tuuk. van der L., De Romeinse Limes. De grenzen van het Rijk in de Lage Landen (2017)

Verhagen, J.G.M., Op zoek naar de kanalen van Drusus. De Utrechtse Vecht in de Romeinse tijd (2022)

Vandermeulen, J., The Frisian Tribe: from Caesar to Charlemagne (1998)

Vugts, T. (ed.), Varen op de Romeinse Rijn. De schepen van Zwammerdam en de limes (2016)

Wolfrat, E., De Brittenburg bij Katwijk. Een reconstructie op basis van schriftelijke bronnen (2022)