Is the seaport Maasvlakte the gateway to north-western Europe? No? How about Europoort? Still no? What about the Botlek port area? Or the town of Vlaardingen? No again? Surely it must be the city of Rotterdam then! Wait—neither? Alright, last guess: since you guys only talk and brag about Frisia, could it be the town of Vreeswijk, the so-called ‘Frisian wic’?

Sorry to disappoint the reader. None of these options is correct. The town in question is Dorestad—sometimes, and more correctly, written as Dorestat. Today, it is known as Wijk bij Duurstede—usually just called Wijk, or Waik by its inhabitants. People from Wijk bij Duurstede are therefore known as Waikers.

Dorestad entered history in the mid-seventh century—and it did so in style: with gold. Golden coins, to be precise. These coins were minted by the master mint-masters Rimoaldus and Madelinus, and bore the inscription Dorestat fit, meaning ‘made in Dorestad’. Learn more about these coins and the vast trading network of Dorestad in our blog post Porcupines Bore U.S. Bucks. The Birth of Economic Liberalism. Well into the ninth century, (silver) coins were still being produced, now carrying the more elaborate name Dorestado. By the end of the seventh century, Dorestad also appears in written sources, described as vicus famosus ‘famous town’ or vicus nominatissimus ‘town of great repute’.

The early-medieval settlement of Dorestad became the largest shipping hub in north-western Europe. Initially, trade focused on relatively low-volume but highly valuable goods such as oil, lead, and tin from the British Isles, as well as pallia Frisonica—Frisian cloth. Soon after, more luxurious items for both secular and clerical elites followed, including honey, furs, amber, incense, papyrus, spices, and ivory. Also notable were figs, dates, olives, and garum (fish sauce) (Van der Tuuk 2021). Wine from the Frankish hinterland dominated trade along the River Rhine for much of the Middle Ages. For example, in 1390, the city of Cologne imported 26 million liters of wine—a striking illustration of how massive and enduring this trade was. During the Late Middle Ages, wine accounted for roughly one-third of the total trade volume transported along the Lower Rhine. Timber ranked second, making up about ten percent of the total volume (Hendriksma 2017).

Over the course of the seventh century, Dorestad became the key clearing-house between the wider North Sea region and the hinterland of the Rhine and Moselle rivers, in what is now Germany. It maintained trade connections westward to England, northward to southern Scandinavia, and via the River Meuse to northern France. Its location was central—situated at the point where the Rhine splits into two branches: the River Kromme Rijn (literally ‘bended Rhine’) to the northwest, and the River Lek to the west.

Besides serving as a clearing house for bulk goods, raw materials, and luxury trade items, local artisan production—such as combs (Rijkelijkhuizen 2024)—also played a role in the trade, though to a lesser extent. In the seventh and eighth centuries, this primarily involved crafting with local raw materials like antler, bone, leather, and wood. By the ninth century, however, artisans also worked with imported materials such as glass, metal, amber, and likely ivory (Van Doesburg 2016).

coinage of Dorestat: left golden coin ca. 650; right silver coin ca. 800

Yes, Dorestad was truly a batwing door—standing between the European continent and the North Sea, linking the maritime world with the terrestrial, and vice versa. Trade flowed both ways, much like the swinging doors of the licentious saloons in the Wild West, famously seen in old Western movies. Those doors had a practical purpose: they allowed suppliers to carry goods in and out without hassle. There was no need to use your hands to push them open—you could carry loads with both hands free. Because batwing doors are half-sized, they are not too heavy to swing open, perfectly illustrating a straightforward, practical mindset.

Smooth flow of people and goods—that was exactly what Dorestad was all about. An open settlement without fortified stone walls or earthen ramparts. Without powerful clergy and, initially, without kings or emperors. It was a place of private trade and money-making for individual benefit—economic liberalism in its purest form. When you think about it, Dorestad was, in many ways, the Wild West: the western frontier of the Continent. Behind it lay impenetrable swamps, dark forests, and wild seas. Moreover, Dorestad marked the border between the Christian world and the still-heathen lands of the Frisians and the also pagan far north. In other words, a corner of civilization—a borderland—from a continental perspective, that is.

A Chinese seaport — The economic axis formed by the estuaries of the rivers Rhine and Meuse, connecting to the Rhineland in Germany, is ancient. Initially, Dorestad held this leading position. Later, the towns of Tiel and Vlaardingen took over, followed by Rotterdam, which now forms the axis together with the Ruhr area. Today, the Rhine’s maritime fleet consists of around 6,900 ships transporting 310 million tons annually—generating significant revenue for the Rhine countries: the Netherlands, Germany, France, Liechtenstein, and Switzerland. But a new player is buying in: China, which already holds a substantial share of the port of Rotterdam.

In the early seventh century, Dorestad developed into a modest trading place under the sphere of influence of Frisia. Frisian merchants—and slavers—and their prototype cog ships dominated trade in north-western Europe. However, at the beginning of the eighth century, Dorestad came under Frankish control, becoming part of the pagus (territory) Upgoa—known in Dutch as Opgooi or ’t Goy (Van Bemmel et al 2022). This shift gave the Frankish kings the advantage of taxing especially bulk goods (Loveluck 2006). Despite this, Frisian merchants and businessmen continued their trade with their freight ships and extensive overseas network, also serving as Rhine skippers transporting goods to and from the Rhineland and the Meuse basin. They were, so to speak, the early-medieval Liana Engibarjan and Iris Dijs. Under Frankish royal rule, Dorestad’s importance and reputation grew—it became a hub of Frankish-Frisian commerce.

Its heyday lasted from the second half of the eighth century until the first quarter of the ninth century. After that, archaeological evidence shows no further expansion of jetties, quays, or docks. Coin production also stagnated. By the end of the ninth century, Dorestad was abandoned. Overall, it remained a leading town in international European trade for more than two centuries.

artist impressions of Dorestat

Massive archaeological excavations in the ‘60s and ‘70s revealed a settlement of ribbon development along the western bank of the River Rhine, about three kilometres in length. Encompassing 250 hectares. It had an estimated 2,000 to 3,000 inhabitants which were amazing numbers those days (Van Bemmel, et al 2022). As said, today we call them Waikers. A two-meter-wide road ran along the riverbank aligned with houses and warehouses. In a right angle with the riverbank, numerous jetties annex dams were built. The jetties were about six to seven meters wide. In the center of the settlement, these jetties were up to 200 meters long. Now, that is what we call a jetty! Probably, on top of the jetties (ware)houses were built too. Behind the warehouses, standing along the riverbank road, were farmsteads. Quite big ones too. About six meters wide and twenty-five meters long. Many had an oblong, ship-shaped lay-out. And not only quays and jetties. From an early nineteenth century charter we know that the riverbanks sections belonging to the church was where traders could moor their ships and pitch their tents to trade (Van der Tuuk 2021).

Yet, Dorestad was a modest-looking place—not monumental like Cologne or Tours (Abulafia 2019). Its layout was typically Frisian, expressing individualism and a strong sense of private property. Every merchant had their own house, storage, quay, ship, and freshwater well. There was no communal storage of goods. Though packed closely together, each property stood as its own island—much like the terp villages in the Frisian heartlands (Pye 2014).

The merchant houses in the vicus area—that is, the riverbank zone where the jetties were located—were rectangular, about five to six meters wide and twelve to sixteen meters long. This kind of town layout was also reflected in the early days of Ribe in southern Jutland, Denmark, a settlement founded by Frisian traders. For more, read our blog post To the End Where It All Began: Ribbon Ribe in Jutland.

From 834 onward, Vikings plundered Dorestad regularly—almost yearly. Raids occurred in 834, 835, 836, 837, 846, 847, 850, 857, and 863, almost like clockwork. As the ninth-century Annales Bertiniani (‘Annals of Saint Bertin’) sarcastically note, “The Northmen at this time fell on Frisia with their usual surprise attack” (Lehr 2019). By then, Dorestad’s reputation was already in decline. The northern sea raiders missed the boat—so their role in Dorestad’s downfall is often overstated. Moreover, many of these raids were politically motivated, serving as pressure tactics on the Frankish king to grant this part of Frisia as benefice to Danish warlords.

The decline of Dorestad was primarily due to the gradual silting of the Lower River Rhine—a process set in motion earlier with the creation of the River Lek (see further below). In the year 839, Holy Roman Emperor Lothair I granted part of western Frisia—roughly the present-day provinces of Noord Holland, Zuid Holland, and part of Utrecht, including the central river area with emporium Dorestad—as a fief to the Viking warlord Rorik. This act arguably delivered the final blow to Dorestad’s already fading dominance. By 855, Dorestad ceased minting coins (Schuuring 2014). Some scholars, however, postulate the thesis that the Frankish kingdom deliberately dismantled Dorestad (Cooijmans 2015).

We cannot help but wonder what a typical yearly Viking raid on Dorestad actually looked like in practice. First, the raiders would have had to row slowly up the winding rivers—first the Stichtse Vecht, then the Kromme Rijn—for some sixty kilometers, a journey that would surely have alerted the entire region well in advance. Upon arrival at Dorestad, they would dock their longships along the endless jetties and then still have to walk several hundred meters inland. By that time, you would expect most of the townspeople to have already fled into the fields, taking their gold and silver with them. Of course, the Vikings could still loot the storehouses and take the goods and livestock from the farms—at least, as much as their ships could carry.

If this really was the practice, it starts to sound less like brutal raiding and more like an annual tax collection—albeit one with extremely high and wildly unpredictable tariffs. A kind of 'fiscal visit' that was perceived—or conveniently framed—as a raid by the locals and the Frankish authorities. That would explain why, despite these so-called yearly 'attacks', Dorestad remained in business, and why there is no archaeological evidence of the town being sacked or burned to the ground. Remarkable, considering it was essentially built of wood. Quite the opposite, in fact, of what the famous Dutch school instruction plate (see image below) has shown to generations of children over the last century. It would be refreshing if scholars began to sketch a more detailed picture of what these Viking raids actually entailed.

Was the early-seventh century really the start of Dorestad?

According to Frankish chronicles, the Frisians and the Franks became embroiled in a fierce conflict at the end of the seventh century. The prize? Dorestad. The battle is said to have taken place at a site referred to as the fortress Duristate. For more on this conflict, check out our blog post The Battles of Redbad, Unplugged. This fortress Duristate may have been the remains of a Roman fort near the present-day town of Rijswijk in the province of Gelderland, situated on the southern bank of the Lower River Rhine—opposite Dorestad’s location.

We consulted the third-/fourth-century Roman world map, the seven-meter-long Tabula Peutingeriana, to see whether the Romans had already attributed any significance to Dorestad. While the flevo Renus (River Rhine) and flevo Patabus (River Meuse) are indeed mapped, the only settlements shown in the region are the fortresses Lugduno—modern-day Katwijk—and Foro Adriani, also known as Forum Hadriani or Municipium Aelium Cananefatium (MAC), at present-day Voorburg in the province of Zuid Holland, near the city of The Hague. All place names appear in the lower left corner of the white square (see below). Sadly, no Dorestad. Or perhaps... it is represented as fortress Levefano (see white arrow on the map), as some scholars suggest. Check out this excellent site (Pars II) to explore the Tabula yourself and see if you can manage without Google Maps navigation.

Around 50 BC, the Romans arrived in the Lower Rhine basin. After a series of failed and/or extremely costly expeditions aimed at subduing Germania north of the Lower Rhine and along the North Sea coast (see our blog post Pagare il fio. Romans struggled in the swampy terrain for more background on these Roman military efforts), they eventually accepted the River Rhine as the northernmost frontier of the Continent. In the first century AD, they began constructing the limes—the border fortification—of Lower Germania along the Rhine. The most westerly castellum, or fortress, was Lugdunum (also spelled Lugduno, see map above), situated at the river mouth near the modern-day town of Katwijk. It is popularly known as fortress Brittenburg. Further inland, the Roman fortress at the town of Rijswijk, located on the Lower Rhine near the fork with the River Lek, was in use from around AD 50 until the end of the third century. This fortress—possibly Levefano, as some suggest—might well be considered the earliest origin of what later became the settlement of Dorestad.

It was during the Roman period that the River Lek, a new branch of the River Rhine, began to emerge. Gradually, the Lek developed into a full-fledged river, flowing toward the Hoek van Holland area on the North Sea coast. In the process, it diverted increasing amounts of water away from the Lower River Rhine—now known as the Kromme Rijn. As a result, the Kromme Rijn began to silt up.

This was a significant and economically detrimental development. The Lower River Rhine had provided access to the River Stichtse Vecht further downstream. The Stichtse Vecht, in turn, flows into Lake IJsselmeer—known in Roman times as Lake Almere—offering a navigable route northward to the Wadden Sea, the North Sea, and beyond. By the twelfth century, the Lower River Rhine was dammed near the town of Wijk bij Duurstede, and the river mouth at modern-day Katwijk on the North Sea had silted up completely. Read more about the River Stichtse Vecht area in our blog post Attingahem Bridge, NY.

Who were the early inhabitants of Dorestad?

This is an awfully difficult question to answer. If we follow the linguistic theory, the people in question spoke a Celtic language. The name Dorestad appears to be composed of the Celtic element dworest, meaning ‘gate’ or ‘door’, combined with the inhabitant suffix -atis. Thus, Dworest-atis translates to ‘Door People’ (Schrijver 2014)—that is, the people who lived at the door, at the gateway. And so, full circle, we are back to swinging the batwing doors of the (wet) Wild West. What are the odds! At the very least, it shows those Celts had foresight and recognized the strategic potential of this area: a two-way gateway.

Another explanation for the suffix -stat links it to stade, or to Old Norwegian stað, meaning a place where ships were pulled ashore. In northern Germany, there is still the town of Stade on the banks of the River Elbe. Similarly, in the medieval settlement of Utrecht, the riverside trading area was called Stathe (Van der Tuuk 2021). Yet another theory suggests that stat or stad simply means ‘place’, while dore derives from the Celtic duron, meaning an enclosed square or market (Clerinx 2023). Yes, etymology is always a bit of fun. You have as many theories as there have been etymologists who have studied it. Still, we are sticking with 'Door People.'

When the Romans arrived in the central river area, the local population also adopted Latin—possibly a variant similar to Picardian—which later evolved into Old French. Eventually, the river-area inhabitants switched languages again, this time to a Germanic tongue: Central Dutch. Sparing the reader the many intermediate stages, the name Dorestad gradually transformed into today’s (Wijk bij) Duurstede. Interestingly, Late Latin continued to be spoken in this region—including parts of the province of Gelderland—well into the early medieval period. It is also here that the Central Dutch language later developed.

Historically, there has always been much debate in the Netherlands about the origins of the Batavians. This brave tribe, along with the Cananefates, the Chauci, and the Frisians, famously led a rebellion against the Romans in the year 69—only to later fade into obscurity. Archaeological research shows that, at the beginning of the era, northern cultural influences grew stronger in the river region. Pottery linked to the Frisians (Frisii) and the Chauci—who lived along the north-western coastal zone of Germany and the Netherlands—has been found in the area of Batavia (modern Betuwe).

Research also suggests that large parts of Batavia were depopulated when the Romans arrived, which may have opened the door for northern tribes to settle these fertile lands. The historical episode of the two Frisian kings, Malorix and Verritus, who travelled to Rome in 58 AD to appeal directly to Emperor Nero over land rights along the limes, fits neatly into this narrative. Furthermore, the fact that the Batavians and Frisians allied to fight against the Romans makes perfect sense within this context.

Discover more about the mission of two kings—or two traitors?—Malorix and Verritus to Rome in 58 in our blog post Barbarians Riding to the Capital to Claim Rights on Farmland. To explore the Batavian uprising of 69, see Our Civilization—It All Began with Piracy.

Germanic or Celtic? — It is important to remember that the term 'Germanic' was coined by the Romans — a label that does not necessarily reflect the tribes’ true identities as we understand them today. In fact, many of these tribes spoke Celtic languages rather than Germanic ones, as we have already seen. Celtic was widespread across Europe at the start of the Common Era, and this could also have been the case for the Frisians during the Roman period. Even the names Malorix and Verritus have Celtic roots. Read our blog posts Barbarians riding to the Capital to claim rights on farmland and Celtic-Frisian heritage – there is no dealing with the Wheels of Fortune for more about the Celtic origin of the Old Frisians.

It is likely that as Dorestad rose to become the commercial hub of north-western Europe, people from all over settled in the town—and perhaps in surrounding settlements throughout the wider region as well. Naturally, Frisians established a significant presence, given their dominance of trade for much of that period. Frisian settlers also inhabited the present-day town of Vreeswijk, known in the ninth century as Fresionouuic, meaning ‘Frisian wic,’ which clearly indicates that the central river region itself was not considered Frisian territory. Notably, there is no place named Vreeswijk in Ostfriesland or in the province of Friesland. This highlights that tribal identities existed both within the river area and among the Frisians. Still, parts of the central river region remained under Frisian influence for much of the early Middle Ages.

Under Frankish rule, from around 720 onward, it is likely that more migrants from the south and the German hinterland also settled in Dorestad. One notable example is the mintmaster Madelinus, who initially worked in Maastricht further south but relocated his business to Dorestad in the mid-seventh century to, quite literally and figuratively, increase his profits. Historical records also mention Danish merchants and Anglo-Saxons traveling to and residing in Dorestad. In other words, it was a typical cosmopolitan mix for its time.

We cannot conclude the story of Dorestad without highlighting its most remarkable find: the Fibula of Dorestad. Dating from between 775 and 800, this exquisite piece is of Frankish craftsmanship.

Note 1 — Near the crossing of Het Sant and Prins Hendrikweg Rd. in the town of Wijk bij Duurstede, you can find a sign giving information on Dorestad. Unfortunately, the sign starts describing the history from 800, during Frankish rule when, in fact, the rise of Dorestat started in the early-sixth century already. We know, we know. History is written by the victors.

Note 2 — Besides Fresionouuic, that is, the current town of Vreeswijk, along the River Stichtse Vecht, just north of the town of Utrecht, in the village of Maarssen, a neighbourhood exists called Friezenbuurt, meaning 'Frisians hood'. Neighbourhood Friezenbuurt is named after workmen from the province of Friesland who worked at the Twijnstra Oliefabriek 'oil factory' of owner Ulbe Twijnstra, anno 1887 (Van Erkel & Samplonius 2018). Ulbe Twijnstra possessed a mill in the village of Akkrum in the province of Friesland, and in 1921, he bought this other mill in the village of Maarssen to make oils for soap, margarine, and vegetable cooking oil.

Neighbourhood Friezenbuurt is located near where during the Early Middle Ages the settlement of Suecsnon was located, which is today's village of Zuilen, along the River Stichtse Vecht. A river that was part of the pagus (territory) Nifterlake. A former Frisian pagus governed by Frisian elite until the mid-tenth century, long after the area had been incorporated into the Frankish kingdom. The River Stichtse Vecht was a very important waterway connecting Dorestad with the north. For more on the pagus Nifterlake and the River Stichtse Vecht, read our blog post Attingahem Bridge, NY. The Frisia Coast Trail passes through all of these places: Maarssen, Friezenbuurt, and Zuilen.

And while we are at it—just 30 kilometers away from the neighbourhood of Friezenbuurt, as the crow flies—there is a hamlet called De Friezenwijk in the province of Gelderland. It lies along the River Linge, near the village of Heukelum. The name is etymologically explained as ‘settlement or farmstead of Frisians’. At De Friezenwijk, a chapel was erected on the spot where a miracle is said to have occurred to a young woman named Elisabeth. She was known to be promiscuous but later repented, though she continued to wrestle with the Devil in a long and very personal struggle—or at least, that is our theory (Van Herwaarden website). As for the nearby village of Heukelum, its name derives from hukila meaning ‘mound’ and heem meaning ‘homestead’, together forming ‘elevated homestead’ (Van Erkel & Samplonius 2018). In other words: a terp. And yes, if you are hiking the Frisia Coast Trail, you will pass right through it.

Note 3 — Besides Dorestad or Wijk bij Duurstede, the nearby region of Rhenen more upstream the River Nederrijn 'Lower Rhine', might have been of (political and religious) importance for the early-medieval Frisian elite as well. See our blog post Don't believe everything they say about sweet Cunera for more.

Note 4 — Dorestatus is also an early-medieval Frankish and Viking re-enactment group bases in the city of Lille in France. Another early-medieval re-enactment group is Monetarii Dorestatti, which is based in the Netherlands.

Suggested music

Robert Schumann, Symphony No. 3 'der Rheinische' (1850)

Rose, D., Little House on the Prairie Theme Song (1971)

Further reading

Abulafia, D., The boundless sea. A human history of the oceans (2019)

Bemmel, van A.A.B., Cohen, K.M., Doesburg, van J., Hermans, T., Huiting, J.H., Poppe, E.L., Renes, J. & Vliet, van K., De dam bij Wijk en het Kromme Rijngebied in de middeleeuwen; Doesburg, van J. & Huiting, J.H., Macht, bezit en samenleving rond het jaar 1000 (2022)

Clerinx, H., De god met de maretak. Kelten en de Lage Landen (2023)

Cooijmans, C., The Controlled Decline of Viking-Ruled Dorestad (2015)

Doesburg, van J., Some New Ideas on the Role and Scale of Artisan Production in Dorestad (2016)

Erkel, van G. & Samplonius, K., Nederlandse plaatsnamen verklaard. Reeks Nederlandse plaatsnamen deel 12 (2018)

Es, van W.A. & Verwers, J.W.H., Early Medieval settlements along the Rhine: precursors and contemporaries of Dorestad (2010)

Fouracre, P. (ed), The New Cambridge Medieval History, volume I, c. 500-c.700; Lebecq, S., The Northern Seas (fifth to eighth centuries) (2005)

Heijden, van der P., Romeinen langs de Noordzee. De limes in Nederland (2020)

Hendriksma, M., De Rijn. Biografie van een rivier (2017)

Herwaarden, van J., Heukelum. O.L. Vrouw van Heukelum (website)

Kamphuis Hansen, N.S., Between Dorestad and Kaupang. A study of Frisian – Scandinavian contact and exchange from the 8th to the end of the 10th century (2018)

Kuipers, J.J.B., Jensma, G. & Vries, O., Nederland in de middeleeuwen. De canon van middeleeuws verleden; Dorestad, eiland van beschaving, 600-850 (2011)

Lehr, P., Pirates. A new history, from Vikings to Somali raiders (2019)

Loveluck, C. & Tys, D., Coastal societies, exchange and identity along the Channel and southern North Sea shores of Europe, AD 600–1000 (2006)

Meier, D., Seefahrer, Händler und Piraten im Mittelalter (2004)

Monchy, de N., Wolfger, de held van Dorestad (2010)

Naum. M., Re-emerging Frontiers: Postcolonial Theory and Historical Archaeology of the Borderlands (2010)

Pey, M., The Edge of the World. How the North Sea Made Us Who We Are (2014)

Rijkelijkhuizen, M., Op zoek naar de Friese kam. Een kammentypologie voor het Nederlandse grondgebied (2024)

Schenk, J., Port Barons and Ruhr Tycoons: the origins of an interdependent relationship between Rotterdam and the Ruhr area, 1870-1914 (2015)

Schuuring, M.P., The Circulation and Use of Coins in the Carolingian Era of the Netherlands: A distribution analysis (2014)

Schrijver, P., Language Contact and the Origins of the Germanic Languages (2014)

Tuuk, van der L., De eerste Gouden Eeuw. Handel en scheepvaart in de vroege middeleeuwen (2011)

Tuuk, van der L., Handelaren en ambachtslieden. Een economische geschiedenis van de vroege middeleeuwen (2021)

Tuuk, van der L., Katla. De reis naar Dorestad (2021)

Vermeulen, J., Opkomst en ondergang van Dorestad. Beeldvorming behoeft bijstelling (2009)

Verwers, W.J.H., Vikings in the lower Rhine area? (2010)

Willemsen, A., Gouden Middeleeuwen. Nederland in de merviovingische wereld, 400-700 na Chr. (2014)

Willemsen, A. & Kik, H. (ed), Dorestad and its networks. Communities, Contact and Conflict in Early Medieval Europe (2021)